Lecture Notes: Memory
When it comes to memory we need to understand 3 terms: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding means to place into, storage is the retention of information, and retrieval involves getting the information back out. Your text discusses some different ways to encode (e.g., visual and semantic). Let’s learn about the 3-stage (Atkinson-Shiffrin) model of memory. The three stages are sensory memory, short term memory, and long-term memory. As noted in your text, sensory memory involves things like sights, sounds, and tastes. There is a vast amount of information to perceive in the world and so we must be focused (e.g., in a lecture we must attend to what is being presented on the board and what is being said). The issue with sensory memory is that it lasts maybe 2 seconds—if we are not focused during the lecture and take notes the data will be lost very quickly. Now, let’s assume we want to remember something we have heard—this data will then go into our short-term memory (STM). Once there, it may only stay for about 15-30 seconds. Consider when someone tells you their phone number. What do you do to remember it? Your sensory memory (auditory sense) heard it and processed it into STM. Now, in STM you probably would find yourself repeating the number over and over in your head. This is called rote-rehearsal and it is a great way to encode data into STM. Many college students, however, attempt to study for exams using this method which is not the best, as there are easier ways to encode information into LTM (e.g., mnemonics and writing). Ok-get a friend and complete the memory test in the STM section of your text. How many did you get right? Most people get about 7. In STM we often talk about the “magic number 7”—this simply means that we can comfortably hold about 7 numbers or letters in our STM. Research has also shown the STM memory range to be 5-9. Some only remember about 5 items while some do better and can remember up to 9. Make sure to read about “chunking”—a way to increase your STM capacity. The ultimate goal is to process data into long-term memory (LTM). Our long-term memory cannot be filled (sorry—you can never state that your brain is full!) and the material should be there for a long time. I say should, because true forgetting can occur and we all have had the experience of trying to recall things which seem lost forever. Sometimes we experience the “tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon”, where we know the answer and we just can’t retrieve it, only to be surprised later when the answer seems to come to us from out of nowhere!!! There some different types of LTM. Know the difference between implicit and explicit memory. Here are some specific types of LTM: Procedural Memory-This involves memory for completing a sequence of actions. For instance, we only learn how to ride a bike once. You might not ride one for 12 years but you could jump right on one and pedal away. Imagine how bizarre it would be if you had to learn how to ride a bike each time you got on one!!! Semantic Memory-This involves your knowledge of words, concepts, and facts. You will have semantic memory for Psychology after taking this course! Now that is awesome! Episodic (Autobiographical) Memory-Remembering the episodes of our lives. These are the things we have personally experienced (e.g., graduating from high school or college). There are a few folks who can remember every detail of their lives (hyperthymesia). Another specific form of episodic memory is termed “flashbulb” memory. This is memory for emotionally charged events. So, we are likely to have detailed memories of the big (emotional) events of our lives (e.g., the day we graduate from college). Strong emotions tend to result in the production of strong memories, while weak emotions result in weaker memories. This is termed arousal theory. Forgetting—Types Proactive Interference-This occurs when old information interferes with our recall of new information. Say you just got a new cell number. A friend asks you for it and all you can remember is the old number—the old is interfering with the new! Frustrating! Retroactive Interference-This occurs when new information interferes with our recall of old information. Say you just got a new cell number. You might not be able to recall your old number—just the new one! Amnesia-There are 2 types. Anterograde Amnesia-This is the inability to create new memories. Clive Wearing (who you watched a video about in Chapter 2) had this difficulty. Retrograde Amnesia: This is the inability to recall specific data about one’s past, such as one’s name, where they are from, etc. False Memory In the early 1970’s Elizabeth Loftus conducted studies showing that individuals memory can be faulty. In her classic study she showed groups of students a video of a car crash. Afterwards, the participants were asked to estimate the speed of the cars. Each experimental group was asked the same question with one word changed (e.g, “How fast were the cars traveling when they smashed (bumped, hit, collided) together?” Each group estimated different speeds, with the “smashed” group estimating the highest speed. Remember, each group saw the same video, so their estimates were not based on what they actually remembered but the way in which the question was asked—this is termed the misinformation effect. Enhancing Memory Memory Aids-Mnemonic Devices and other methods (see text). Studying Make sure you are familiar with section on how to study effectively!! Very good stuff!! MEMORY Chapter 8 PSY101 Eastern Gateway Community College MEMORY When it comes to memory we need to understand 3 terms: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding means to place into Storage is the retention of information Retrieval involves getting the information back out. Your text discusses some different ways to encode (e.g., visual and semantic). This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY LET’S LEARN ABOUT THE 3-STAGE (ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN) MODEL OF MEMORY. THE THREE STAGES ARE SENSORY MEMORY, SHORT TERM MEMORY, AND LONG-TERM MEMORY. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY SENSORY MEMORY As noted in your text, sensory memory involves things like sights, sounds, and tastes. There is a vast amount of information to perceive in the world and so we must be focused (e.g., in a lecture we must attend to what is being presented on the board and what is being said). The issue with sensory memory is that it lasts maybe 2 seconds—if we are not focused during the lecture and take notes the data will be lost very quickly. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND SHORT-TERM MEMORY Now, let’s assume we want to remember something we have heard—this data will then go into our short-term memory (STM). Once there, it may only stay for about 15-30 seconds. Consider when someone tells you their phone number. What do you do to remember it? Your sensory memory (auditory sense) heard it and processed it into STM. Now, in STM you probably would find yourself repeating the number over and over in your head. This is called rote-rehearsal and it is a great way to encode data into STM. Many college students, however, attempt to study for exams using this method which is not the best, as there are easier ways to encode information into LTM (e.g., mnemonics and writing). Ok-get a friend and complete the memory test in the STM section of your text. How many did you get right? Most people get about 7. In STM we often talk about the “magic number 7”—this simply means that we can comfortably hold about 7 numbers or letters in our STM. Research has also shown the STM memory range to be 5-9. Some only remember about 5 items while some do better and can remember up to 9. Make sure to read about “chunking”—a way to increase your STM capacity. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND LONG-TERM MEMORY The ultimate goal is to process data into longterm memory (LTM). Our long-term memory cannot be filled (sorry—you can never state that your brain is full!) and the material should be there for a long time. I say should, because true forgetting can occur, and we all have had the experience of trying to recall things which seem lost forever. Sometimes we experience the “tipof-the-tongue phenomenon”, where we know the answer and we just can’t retrieve it, only to be surprised later when the answer seems to come to us from out of nowhere!!! This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA THERE ARE SOME DIFFERENT TYPES OF LTM. KNOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMPLICIT & EXPLICIT MEMORY. HERE ARE SOME SPECIFIC TYPES OF LTM: Procedural Memory • This involves memory for completing a sequence of actions. For instance, we only learn how to ride a bike once. You might not ride one for 12 years, but you could jump right on one and pedal away. Imagine how bizarre it would be if you had to learn how to ride a bike each time you got on one!!! Semantic Memory • This involves your knowledge of words, concepts, and facts. You will have semantic memory for Psychology after taking this course! Now that is awesome! Episodic (Autobiographical) Memory • Remembering the episodes of our lives. These are the things we have personally experienced (e.g., graduating from high school or college). There are a few folks who can remember every detail of their lives (hyperthymesia). • Another specific form of episodic memory is termed “flashbulb” memory. This is memory for emotionally charged events. So, we are likely to have detailed memories of the big (emotional) events of our lives (e.g., the day we graduate from college). Strong emotions tend to result in the production of strong memories, while weak emotions result in weaker memories. This is termed arousal theory. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY Proactive Interference Retroactive Interference This occurs when old information interferes with our recall of new information. Say you just got a new cell number. A friend asks you for it and all you can remember is the old number—the old is interfering with the new! Frustrating! FORGETTING This occurs when new information interferes with our recall of old information. Say you just got a new cell number. You might not be able to recall your old number—just the new one! This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY AMNESIA Anterograde Amnesia Retrograde Amnesia • This is the inability to create new memories. Clive Wearing (who you watched a video about in Chapter 2) had this difficulty. • This is the inability to recall specific data about one’s past, such as one’s name, where they are from, etc This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY FALSE MEMORY This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY In the early 1970’s Elizabeth Loftus conducted studies showing that individuals memory can be faulty. In her classic study she showed groups of students a video of a car crash. Afterwards, the participants were asked to estimate the speed of the cars. Each experimental group was asked the same question with one word changed (e.g, “How fast were the cars traveling when they smashed (bumped, hit, collided) together?” Each group estimated different speeds, with the “smashed” group estimating the highest speed. Remember, each group saw the same video, so their estimates were not based on what they actually remembered but the way in which the question was asked—this is termed the misinformation effect. ENHANCING MEMORY Memory AidsMnemonic Devices and other methods (see text). This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC STUDYING Make sure you are familiar with section on how to study effectively!! Very good stuff!! This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA
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Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Main Posting
45 (45%) – 50 (50%)
Answers all parts of the discussion question(s) expectations with reflective critical analysis and synthesis of knowledge gained from the course readings for the module and current credible sources.
Supported by at least three current, credible sources.
Written clearly and concisely with no grammatical or spelling errors and fully adheres to current APA manual writing rules and style.
40 (40%) – 44 (44%)
Responds to the discussion question(s) and is reflective with critical analysis and synthesis of knowledge gained from the course readings for the module.
At least 75% of post has exceptional depth and breadth.
Supported by at least three credible sources.
Written clearly and concisely with one or no grammatical or spelling errors and fully adheres to current APA manual writing rules and style.
35 (35%) – 39 (39%)
Responds to some of the discussion question(s).
One or two criteria are not addressed or are superficially addressed.
Is somewhat lacking reflection and critical analysis and synthesis.
Somewhat represents knowledge gained from the course readings for the module.
Post is cited with two credible sources.
Written somewhat concisely; may contain more than two spelling or grammatical errors.
Contains some APA formatting errors.
0 (0%) – 34 (34%)
Does not respond to the discussion question(s) adequately.
Lacks depth or superficially addresses criteria.
Lacks reflection and critical analysis and synthesis.
Does not represent knowledge gained from the course readings for the module.
Contains only one or no credible sources.
Not written clearly or concisely.
Contains more than two spelling or grammatical errors.
Does not adhere to current APA manual writing rules and style.
Main Post: Timeliness
10 (10%) – 10 (10%)
Posts main post by day 3.
0 (0%) – 0 (0%)
0 (0%) – 0 (0%)
0 (0%) – 0 (0%)
Does not post by day 3.
First Response
17 (17%) – 18 (18%)
Response exhibits synthesis, critical thinking, and application to practice settings.
Responds fully to questions posed by faculty.
Provides clear, concise opinions and ideas that are supported by at least two scholarly sources.
Demonstrates synthesis and understanding of learning objectives.
Communication is professional and respectful to colleagues.
Responses to faculty questions are fully answered, if posed.
Response is effectively written in standard, edited English.
15 (15%) – 16 (16%)
Response exhibits critical thinking and application to practice settings.
Communication is professional and respectful to colleagues.
Responses to faculty questions are answered, if posed.
Provides clear, concise opinions and ideas that are supported by two or more credible sources.
Response is effectively written in standard, edited English.
13 (13%) – 14 (14%)
Response is on topic and may have some depth.
Responses posted in the discussion may lack effective professional communication.
Responses to faculty questions are somewhat answered, if posed.
Response may lack clear, concise opinions and ideas, and a few or no credible sources are cited.
0 (0%) – 12 (12%)
Response may not be on topic and lacks depth.
Responses posted in the discussion lack effective professional communication.
Responses to faculty questions are missing.
No credible sources are cited.
Second Response
16 (16%) – 17 (17%)
Response exhibits synthesis, critical thinking, and application to practice settings.
Responds fully to questions posed by faculty.
Provides clear, concise opinions and ideas that are supported by at least two scholarly sources.
Demonstrates synthesis and understanding of learning objectives.
Communication is professional and respectful to colleagues.
Responses to faculty questions are fully answered, if posed.
Response is effectively written in standard, edited English.
14 (14%) – 15 (15%)
Response exhibits critical thinking and application to practice settings.
Communication is professional and respectful to colleagues.
Responses to faculty questions are answered, if posed.
Provides clear, concise opinions and ideas that are supported by two or more credible sources.
Response is effectively written in standard, edited English.
12 (12%) – 13 (13%)
Response is on topic and may have some depth.
Responses posted in the discussion may lack effective professional communication.
Responses to faculty questions are somewhat answered, if posed.
Response may lack clear, concise opinions and ideas, and a few or no credible sources are cited.
0 (0%) – 11 (11%)
Response may not be on topic and lacks depth.
Responses posted in the discussion lack effective professional communication.
Responses to faculty questions are missing.
No credible sources are cited.
Participation
5 (5%) – 5 (5%)
Meets requirements for participation by posting on three different days.
0 (0%) – 0 (0%)
0 (0%) – 0 (0%)
0 (0%) – 0 (0%)
Does not meet requirements for participation by posting on 3 different days.
Total Points: 100
